Embedded Files
1) Overview:
(1) Definition:
An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs.
(2) Important functions:
Memory Management: management of Primary Memory or Main Memory.
Processor Management: decides which process gets the processor when and for how much time.
Device Management: manages device communication via their respective drivers.
File Management
Security: prevents unauthorized access to programs and data.
Control over system performance: recording delays between request for a service and response from the system.
Job accounting: Keeping track of time and resources used by various jobs and users.
Error detecting aids: Production of dumps, traces, error messages, and other debugging and error detecting aids.
Coordination between other software and users: Coordination and assignment of compilers, interpreters, assemblers and other software to the various users of the computer systems
(3) Example:
Linux Operating System
Windows Operating System
VMS, OS/400, AIX, z/OS, etc.
2) Types:
(1) Batch operating system: ==> Jobs
(2) Time-sharing operating systems: ==> Users
(3) Distributed operating system: ==> Processors
(4) Network operating system ==> Server
(5) Real-Time operating system ==> Restrict Response time
(1) Batch operating system:
To speed up processing, jobs with similar needs are batched together and run as a group.
Disadvantages:
Lack of interaction between the user and the job.
CPU is often idle, because the speed of the mechanical I/O devices is slower than the CPU.
Difficult to provide the desired priority.
(2) Time-sharing operating systems:
Time-sharing is a technique that enables many people, located at various terminals, to use a particular computer system at the same time.
Time-sharing or multitasking is a logical extension of multi-programming.
Processor's time which is shared among multiple users simultaneously is termed as time-sharing.
The main difference between (1) Multi-programmed Batch Systems and (2) Time-Sharing Systems:
Multi-programmed batch systems: the objective is to maximize processor use.
Time-Sharing Systems: the objective is to minimize response time.
Advantages:
Provides the advantage of quick response.
Avoids duplication of software.
Reduces CPU idle time.
Disadvantages:
Problem of reliability.
Question of security and integrity of user programs and data.
Problem of data communication.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU by switching between them, but the switches occur so frequently. Thus, the user can receive an immediate response.
For example, in a transaction processing, the processor executes each user program in a short burst or quantum of computation. That is, if n users are present, then each user can get a time quantum. When the user submits the command, the response time is in few seconds at most.
The operating system uses CPU scheduling and multi-programming to provide each user with a small portion of a time. Computer systems that were designed primarily as batch systems have been modified to time-sharing systems.
(3) Distributed operating system:
Distributed systems use multiple central processors to serve multiple real-time applications and multiple users. Data processing jobs are distributed among the processors accordingly.
The processors communicate with one another through various communication lines (such as high-speed buses or telephone lines). These are referred as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems.
Processors in a distributed system may vary in size and function. These processors are referred as sites, nodes, computers, and so on.
Advantages:
With resource sharing facility, a user at one site may be able to use the resources available at another.
Speed-up the exchange of data with one another via electronic mail.
If one site fails in a distributed system, the remaining sites can potentially continue operating.
Better service to the customers.
Reduction of the load on the host computer.
Reduction of delays in data processing.
(4) Network operating system:
A Network Operating System runs on a server and provides the server the capability to manage data, users, groups, security, applications, and other networking functions.
The primary purpose of the network operating system is to allow shared file and printer access among multiple computers in a network, typically a local area network (LAN), a private network or to other networks.
Examples of network operating systems include: Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and BSD.
Advantages:
Centralized servers are highly stable.
Security is server-managed.
Upgrades to new technologies and hardware can be easily integrated into the system.
Remote access to servers is possible from different locations and types of systems.
Disadvantages:
High cost of buying and running a server.
Dependency on a central location for most operations.
Regular maintenance and updates are required.
(5) Real-Time operating system:
A real-time system is defined as a data processing system in which the time interval required to process and respond to inputs is so small that it controls the environment. The response time is very less as compared to online processing.
Real-time systems are used when there are rigid time requirements on the operation of a processor or the flow of data and real-time systems can be used as a control device in a dedicated application.
A real-time operating system must have well-defined, fixed time constraints, otherwise the system will fail. For example, Scientific experiments, medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air traffic control systems, etc.
There are two types of real-time operating systems.
Hard real-time systems: Hard real-time systems guarantee that critical tasks complete on time. In hard real-time systems, secondary storage is limited or missing and the data is stored in ROM. In these systems, virtual memory is almost never found.
Soft real-time systems: Soft real-time systems are less restrictive. A critical real-time task gets priority over other tasks and retains the priority until it completes. Soft real-time systems have limited utility than hard real-time systems. For example, multimedia, virtual reality, Advanced Scientific Projects like undersea exploration and planetary rovers, etc.
The response time: The time taken by the system to respond to an input and display of required updated information.
3) Services:
An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.
It provides programs an environment to execute.
It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.
Common services provided by an operating system:
(1) Program execution ==> Handle Activities.
(2) I/O operations ==> Manage Communication.
(3) File System manipulation
(4) Communication
(5) Error Detection
(6) Resource Allocation
(7) Protection
(1) Program execution:
Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system programs like printer spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a process.
A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate, registers, OS resources in use).
Ex: Activities of an operating system with respect to program management:
Loads a program into memory.
Executes the program.
Handles program's execution.
Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
Provides a mechanism for process communication.
Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.
Load => Execute = > Handle => Sync => Communicate => Deadlock handling.
(2) I/O Operation:
An I/O subsystem = I/O devices + corresponding driver software.
An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers.
I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.
Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.
Drivers hide the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.
(3) File System Manipulation:
A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk (secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose.
Ex: Storage media include magnetic tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its own properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate and data access methods.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These directories may contain files and other directions.
Ex: Activities of an operating system with respect to file management:
Program needs to read a file or write a file.
The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file. Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.
Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.
Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.
Read/ Write => Give Permission => Provide interfaces: create/ delete files/ directories or create backup of file system.
(4) Communication:
In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share memory, peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications between all the processes.
Multiple processes communicate with one another through communication lines in the network.
The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security.
Ex: Activities of an operating system with respect to communication:
Two processes often require data to be transferred between them
Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are connected through a computer network.
Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or by Message Passing.
Require transfering data ==> Connected multiple processes => implementation
(5) Error handling:
Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to error handling −
The OS constantly checks for possible errors.
The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.
(6) Resource Management:
In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU cycles and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to resource management −
The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.
CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.
(7) Protection:
Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of multiple processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's activities.
Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or users to the resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to protection −
The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.
The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.
The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords.
4) Properties:
(1) Batch processing
(2) Multitasking
(3) Multiprogramming
(4) Interactivity
(5) Real-time System
(6) Distributed Environment
(7) Spooling
(1) Batch processing:
Batch processing is a technique in which an Operating System collects the programs and data together in a batch before processing starts. An operating system does the following activities related to batch processing −
The OS defines a job which has predefined sequence of commands, programs and data as a single unit.
The OS keeps a number a jobs in memory and executes them without any manual information.
Jobs are processed in the order of submission, i.e., first come first served fashion.
When a job completes its execution, its memory is released and the output for the job gets copied into an output spool for later printing or processing.
Advantages
Batch processing takes much of the work of the operator to the computer.
Increased performance as a new job get started as soon as the previous job is finished, without any manual intervention.
Disadvantages
Difficult to debug program.
A job could enter an infinite loop.
Due to lack of protection scheme, one batch job can affect pending jobs.
(2) Multitasking:
Multitasking is when multiple jobs are executed by the CPU simultaneously by switching between them. Switches occur so frequently that the users may interact with each program while it is running. An OS does the following activities related to multitasking −
The user gives instructions to the operating system or to a program directly, and receives an immediate response.
The OS handles multitasking in the way that it can handle multiple operations/executes multiple programs at a time.
Multitasking Operating Systems are also known as Time-sharing systems.
These Operating Systems were developed to provide interactive use of a computer system at a reasonable cost.
A time-shared operating system uses the concept of CPU scheduling and multiprogramming to provide each user with a small portion of a time-shared CPU.
Each user has at least one separate program in memory.
A program that is loaded into memory and is executing is commonly referred to as a process.
When a process executes, it typically executes for only a very short time before it either finishes or needs to perform I/O.
Since interactive I/O typically runs at slower speeds, it may take a long time to complete. During this time, a CPU can be utilized by another process.
The operating system allows the users to share the computer simultaneously. Since each action or command in a time-shared system tends to be short, only a little CPU time is needed for each user.
As the system switches CPU rapidly from one user/program to the next, each user is given the impression that he/she has his/her own CPU, whereas actually one CPU is being shared among many users.
(3) Multiprogramming:
Sharing the processor, when two or more programs reside in memory at the same time, is referred as multiprogramming. Multiprogramming assumes a single shared processor. Multiprogramming increases CPU utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU always has one to execute.
The following figure shows the memory layout for a multiprogramming system.
An OS does the following activities related to multiprogramming.
The operating system keeps several jobs in memory at a time.
This set of jobs is a subset of the jobs kept in the job pool.
The operating system picks and begins to execute one of the jobs in the memory.
Multiprogramming operating systems monitor the state of all active programs and system resources using memory management programs to ensures that the CPU is never idle, unless there are no jobs to process.
Advantages
High and efficient CPU utilization.
User feels that many programs are allotted CPU almost simultaneously.
Disadvantages
CPU scheduling is required.
To accommodate many jobs in memory, memory management is required.
(4) Interactivity:
Interactivity refers to the ability of users to interact with a computer system. An Operating system does the following activities related to interactivity −
Provides the user an interface to interact with the system.
Manages input devices to take inputs from the user. For example, keyboard.
Manages output devices to show outputs to the user. For example, Monitor.
The response time of the OS needs to be short, since the user submits and waits for the result.
(5) Real-time System:
Real-time systems are usually dedicated, embedded systems. An operating system does the following activities related to real-time system activity.
In such systems, Operating Systems typically read from and react to sensor data.
The Operating system must guarantee response to events within fixed periods of time to ensure correct performance.
(6) Distributed Environment:
A distributed environment refers to multiple independent CPUs or processors in a computer system. An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −
The OS distributes computation logics among several physical processors.
The processors do not share memory or a clock. Instead, each processor has its own local memory.
The OS manages the communications between the processors. They communicate with each other through various communication lines.
(7) Spooling:
Spooling is an acronym for simultaneous peripheral operations on line. Spooling refers to putting data of various I/O jobs in a buffer. This buffer is a special area in memory or hard disk which is accessible to I/O devices.
An operating system does the following activities related to distributed environment −
Handles I/O device data spooling as devices have different data access rates.
Maintains the spooling buffer which provides a waiting station where data can rest while the slower device catches up.
Maintains parallel computation because of spooling process as a computer can perform I/O in parallel fashion. It becomes possible to have the computer read data from a tape, write data to disk and to write out to a tape printer while it is doing its computing task.
Advantages
The spooling operation uses a disk as a very large buffer.
Spooling is capable of overlapping I/O operation for one job with processor operations for another job.
5) Processes:
(1) Process
(2) Program
(3) Process Life Cycle
(4) Process Control Block (PCB)
(1) Process:
A process is basically a program in execution. The execution of a process must progress in a sequential fashion.
A process is defined as an entity which represents the basic unit of work to be implemented in the system.
To put it in simple terms, we write our computer programs in a text file and when we execute this program, it becomes a process which performs all the tasks mentioned in the program.
When a program is loaded into the memory and it becomes a process, it can be divided into four sections ─ stack, heap, text and data. The following image shows a simplified layout of a process inside main memory −
Components:
Stack: The process Stack contains the temporary data such as method/function parameters, return address, and local variables.
Heap: This is dynamically allocated memory to a process during its run time.
Text: This includes the current activity represented by the value of Program Counter and the contents of the processor's registers.
Data: This section contains the global and static variables.
(2) Program:
A program is a piece of code which may be a single line or millions of lines. A computer program is usually written by a computer programmer in a programming language. For example, here is a simple program written in C programming language −
#include <stdio.h>
int main() {
printf("Hello, World! \n");
return 0;
}
A computer program is a collection of instructions that performs a specific task when executed by a computer. When we compare a program with a process, we can conclude that a process is a dynamic instance of a computer program.
A part of a computer program that performs a well-defined task is known as an algorithm. A collection of computer programs, libraries and related data are referred to as a software.
(3) Process Life Cycle:
When a process executes, it passes through different states. These stages may differ in different operating systems, and the names of these states are also not standardized.
In general, a process can have one of the following five states at a time.
Start: This is the initial state when a process is first started/created.
Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor. Ready processes are waiting to have the processor allocated to them by the operating system so that they can run. Process may come into this state after Start state or while running it by but interrupted by the scheduler to assign CPU to some other process.
Running: Once the process has been assigned to a processor by the OS scheduler, the process state is set to running and the processor executes its instructions.
Waiting: Process moves into the waiting state if it needs to wait for a resource, such as waiting for user input, or waiting for a file to become available.
Terminated or Exit: Once the process finishes its execution, or it is terminated by the operating system, it is moved to the terminated state where it waits to be removed from main memory.
(3) Process Control Block (PCB):
A Process Control Block is a data structure maintained by the Operating System for every process. The PCB is identified by an integer process ID (PID). A PCB keeps all the information needed to keep track of a process as listed below in the table −
Process State
The current state of the process i.e., whether it is ready, running, waiting, or whatever.
2
Process privileges
This is required to allow/disallow access to system resources.
3
Process ID
Unique identification for each of the process in the operating system.
4
Pointer
A pointer to parent process.
5
Program Counter
Program Counter is a pointer to the address of the next instruction to be executed for this process.
6
CPU registers
Various CPU registers where process need to be stored for execution for running state.
7
CPU Scheduling Information
Process priority and other scheduling information which is required to schedule the process.
8
Memory management information
This includes the information of page table, memory limits, Segment table depending on memory used by the operating system.
9
Accounting information
This includes the amount of CPU used for process execution, time limits, execution ID etc.
10
IO status information
This includes a list of I/O devices allocated to the process.
The architecture of a PCB is completely dependent on Operating System and may contain different information in different operating systems.
The PCB is maintained for a process throughout its lifetime, and is deleted once the process terminates.
Here is a simplified diagram of a PCB
6) Process Scheduling:
(1) Definition
(2) Process Scheduling Queues
(3) Two-State Process Model
(4) Schedulers
(5) Long Term Scheduler
(6) Short Term Scheduler
(7) Medium Term Scheduler
(8) Comparison among Scheduler
(9) Context Switch
(1) Definition:
The process scheduling is the activity of the process manager that handles the removal of the running process from the CPU and the selection of another process on the basis of a particular strategy.
Process scheduling is an essential part of a Multiprogramming operating systems. Such operating systems allow more than one process to be loaded into the executable memory at a time and the loaded process shares the CPU using time multiplexing.
(2) Process Scheduling Queues:
The OS maintains all PCBs in Process Scheduling Queues. The OS maintains a separate queue for each of the process states and PCBs of all processes in the same execution state are placed in the same queue. When the state of a process is changed, its PCB is unlinked from its current queue and moved to its new state queue.
The Operating System maintains the following important process scheduling queues −
Job queue − This queue keeps all the processes in the system.
Ready queue − This queue keeps a set of all processes residing in main memory, ready and waiting to execute. A new process is always put in this queue.
Device queues − The processes which are blocked due to unavailability of an I/O device constitute this queue.
The OS can use different policies to manage each queue (FIFO, Round Robin, Priority, etc.). The OS scheduler determines how to move processes between the ready and run queues which can only have one entry per processor core on the system; in the above diagram, it has been merged with the CPU.
(3) Two-State Process Model:
Two-state process model refers to running and non-running states which are described below −
Running: When a new process is created, it enters into the system as in the running state.
Not Running: Processes that are not running are kept in queue, waiting for their turn to execute. Each entry in the queue is a pointer to a particular process. Queue is implemented by using linked list. Use of dispatcher is as follows. When a process is interrupted, that process is transferred in the waiting queue. If the process has completed or aborted, the process is discarded. In either case, the dispatcher then selects a process from the queue to execute.
(4) Schedulers:
Schedulers are special system software which handle process scheduling in various ways. Their main task is to select the jobs to be submitted into the system and to decide which process to run. Schedulers are of three types −
Long-Term Scheduler
Short-Term Scheduler
Medium-Term Scheduler
(5) Long Term Scheduler:
It is also called a job scheduler. A long-term scheduler determines which programs are admitted to the system for processing. It selects processes from the queue and loads them into memory for execution. Process loads into the memory for CPU scheduling.
The primary objective of the job scheduler is to provide a balanced mix of jobs, such as I/O bound and processor bound. It also controls the degree of multiprogramming. If the degree of multiprogramming is stable, then the average rate of process creation must be equal to the average departure rate of processes leaving the system.
On some systems, the long-term scheduler may not be available or minimal. Time-sharing operating systems have no long term scheduler. When a process changes the state from new to ready, then there is use of long-term scheduler.
(6) Short Term Scheduler:
It is also called as CPU scheduler. Its main objective is to increase system performance in accordance with the chosen set of criteria. It is the change of ready state to running state of the process. CPU scheduler selects a process among the processes that are ready to execute and allocates CPU to one of them.
Short-term schedulers, also known as dispatchers, make the decision of which process to execute next. Short-term schedulers are faster than long-term schedulers.
(7) Medium Term Scheduler:
Medium-term scheduling is a part of swapping. It removes the processes from the memory. It reduces the degree of multiprogramming. The medium-term scheduler is in-charge of handling the swapped out-processes.
A running process may become suspended if it makes an I/O request. A suspended processes cannot make any progress towards completion. In this condition, to remove the process from memory and make space for other processes, the suspended process is moved to the secondary storage. This process is called swapping, and the process is said to be swapped out or rolled out. Swapping may be necessary to improve the process mix.
(8) Comparison among Scheduler:
(8) Context Switch:
A context switch is the mechanism to store and restore the state or context of a CPU in Process Control block so that a process execution can be resumed from the same point at a later time. Using this technique, a context switcher enables multiple processes to share a single CPU. Context switching is an essential part of a multitasking operating system features.
When the scheduler switches the CPU from executing one process to execute another, the state from the current running process is stored into the process control block. After this, the state for the process to run next is loaded from its own PCB and used to set the PC, registers, etc. At that point, the second process can start executing.
Context switches are computationally intensive since register and memory state must be saved and restored. To avoid the amount of context switching time, some hardware systems employ two or more sets of processor registers. When the process is switched, the following information is stored for later use.
Program Counter
Scheduling information
Base and limit register value
Currently used register
Changed State
I/O State information
Accounting information
7) Scheduling Algorithms:
A Process Scheduler schedules different processes to be assigned to the CPU based on particular scheduling algorithms. Six popular process scheduling algorithms:
(1) First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling
(2) Shortest-Job-Next (SJN) Scheduling
(3) Priority Scheduling
(4) Shortest Remaining Time
(5) Round Robin(RR) Scheduling
(6) Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling
These algorithms are either non-preemptive or preemptive. Non-preemptive algorithms are designed so that once a process enters the running state, it cannot be preempted until it completes its allotted time, whereas the preemptive scheduling is based on priority where a scheduler may preempt a low priority running process anytime when a high priority process enters into a ready state.
(1) First-Come, First-Served (FCFS) Scheduling:
Jobs are executed on first come, first serve basis.
It is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.
Easy to understand and implement.
Its implementation is based on FIFO queue.
Poor in performance as average wait time is high.
Wait time of each process:
Average Wait Time: (0+4+6+13)/4 = 5.75
(2) Shortest Job Next (SJN):
This is also known as shortest job first, or SJF
This is a non-preemptive, pre-emptive scheduling algorithm.
Best approach to minimize waiting time.
Easy to implement in Batch systems where required CPU time is known in advance.
Impossible to implement in interactive systems where required CPU time is not known.
The processer should know in advance how much time process will take.
Given: Table of processes, and their Arrival time, Execution time
Wait time of each process:
Average Wait Time: (0+4+12+5)/4 = 21/4 = 5.25
(3) Priority Based Scheduling:
Priority scheduling is a non-preemptive algorithm and one of the most common scheduling algorithms in batch systems.
Each process is assigned a priority. Process with highest priority is to be executed first and so on.
Processes with same priority are executed on first come first served basis.
Priority can be decided based on memory requirements, time requirements or any other resource requirement.
Given: Table of processes, and their Arrival time, Execution time, and priority. Here we are considering 1 is the lowest priority.
Wait time of each process:
Average Wait Time: (0+10+12+2)/4 = 24/4 = 6
(4) Shortest Remaining Time:
Shortest remaining time (SRT) is the preemptive version of the SJN algorithm.
The processor is allocated to the job closest to completion but it can be preempted by a newer ready job with shorter time to completion.
Impossible to implement in interactive systems where required CPU time is not known.
It is often used in batch environments where short jobs need to give preference.
(5) Round Robin Scheduling:
Round Robin is the preemptive process scheduling algorithm.
Each process is provided a fix time to execute, it is called a quantum.
Once a process is executed for a given time period, it is preempted and other process executes for a given time period.
Context switching is used to save states of preempted processes.
Wait time of each process:
Average Wait Time: (9+2+12+11) / 4 = 8.5
(6) Multiple-Level Queues Scheduling:
Multiple-level queues are not an independent scheduling algorithm. They make use of other existing algorithms to group and schedule jobs with common characteristics.
Multiple queues are maintained for processes with common characteristics.
Each queue can have its own scheduling algorithms.
Priorities are assigned to each queue.
For example, CPU-bound jobs can be scheduled in one queue and all I/O-bound jobs in another queue. The Process Scheduler then alternately selects jobs from each queue and assigns them to the CPU based on the algorithm assigned to the queue.
References:
https://www.tutorialspoint.com/operating_system/index.htm
Page updated
Google Sites
Report abuse